For centuries, windmills had been employed in the Netherlands for the roughly similar operation of draining low-lying flood plains. Steam power was first applied to pump water out of coal mines. The coal-fired steam engine was in many respects the decisive technology of the Industrial Revolution. The mining and distribution of coal set in motion some of the dynamics that led to Britain’s industrialization. The country’s transition to coal as a principal energy source was more or less complete by the end of the 17th century. Energy Deforestation in England had led to a shortage of wood for lumber and fuel starting in the 16th century. A great many rural workers and families were forced by circumstance to migrate to the cities to become industrial laborers. The enclosure movement, which converted common-use pasture land into private property, contributed to this trend toward market-oriented agriculture. Poorer peasants had a harder time making ends meet through traditional subsistence farming. The combination of factors also brought about a shift toward large-scale commercial farming, a trend that continued into the 19th century and later. The result was a sustained increase in yields, capable of feeding a rapidly growing population with improved nutrition. Progress was also made in crop rotation and land use, soil health, development of new crop varieties, and animal husbandry. These included new types of equipment, such as the seed drill developed by Jethro Tull around 1701. Several factors came together in 18th-century Britain to bring about a substantial increase in agricultural productivity. Agriculture Western European farming methods had been improving gradually over the centuries. The following are some key examples of the forces driving change. Key inventions and innovations served to shape virtually every existing sector of human activity along industrial lines, while also creating many new industries. Perhaps what was most unique about the Industrial Revolution was its merger of technology with industry. The technological revolution, and that sense of ever-quickening change, began much earlier than the 18th century and has continued all the way to the present day. The word “technology” (which derives from the Greek word techne, meaning art or craft) encompasses both of these dimensions of innovation. It also involved more subtle practical improvements in various fields affecting labor, production, and resource use. This acceleration in the processes of technical innovation brought about an array of new tools and machines. The term “industrial revolution” is a succinct catchphrase to describe a historical period, starting in 18th-century Great Britain, where the pace of change appeared to speed up. It has been said that the Industrial Revolution was the most profound revolution in human history, because of its sweeping impact on people’s daily lives.

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